MAKALAH TENTANG MORPHOPHONEMICS
Baca Juga
A. Introduction
Phonology adalah ilmu yang mempelajari tentang bunyi. Bunyi merupakan komponen paling penting dalam phonology. Pengucapan bunyi dari sebuah kata akan sangat mempengaruhi makna. Terkadang ada kata-kata tertentu yang hampir sama pengucapannya, namun memiliki makna yang berbeda, seperti pengucapan sick and six. Keduanya memiliki
makna yang berbeda namun hampir memiliki kesamaan dalam pengucapan. Kata six harus diucapkan dengan letukan atau plosive, sedangkan six diucapkan dengan datar. Ini artinya kata dan perubahan bentuk kata itu sendiri sangat erat kaitannya dengan bunyi dalam pengucapan. Dalam hubungannya, kata dalam morphology erat kaitannya dengan phonology. Hubungan antara keduanya disebut dengan morphophonemics. Perubahan bunyi dalam phonology akan berubah ketika suatu kata mengalami perubahan, seperti bentuk Verb1 menjadi Verb2, mendapat imbuhan prefix, infix or suffix, etc. Perubahan bunyi itu untuk membedakan bentuk kata tersebut apakah Verb1, Verb2, plural tidaknya, atau cara pengucapan kata yang benar.
1. Background
In his book titled ‘A Manual Of Phonology’ Charles F. Hockett, Professor of linguistics and anthropology, says that language is nothing but a complex system of habits and this system can be broken down and categorized into five principle subsystems:[1]
a. The phonological system: refers to the stock of phonemes and the systematic arrangements in which these phonemes occur in a language;
b. The grammatical system: refers to the stock of morphemes, the systematic arrangements in which these morphemes occur in a language;
c. The morphophonemic system: refers to the relational code that ties phonological and grammatical system together.
d. The semantic system: refers to the association of morphemes, combinations of morphemes, and the systematic arrangements in which morphemes can be put, with things and situations, or kinds of things and situations.
e. The phonetic system: refers to the process in which phonemes, sequences of phonemes of are converted into sound waves/speech signals by a speaker, and these sound waves/speech are then decoded from by a hearer.
Of these five principle subsystems, 1 to 3 are central, while 4-5 seem to be peripheral in nature to the language as a system. In this chapter, our main focus will be on 3 ‘The morphophonemic system’ and this focus will further be limited to scope in that examples and discussions will be revolve around morphophonemic system of English language.
2. Morphophonemics
Morphophonemics may be defined as analysis and classification of the phonological factors which affect the pronunciation of morphemes or, correspondingly, the morphological factors which affect the appearance of phonemes. In morphophonemics, we basically study interaction between morphological and phonological processes and how they these factors affect each other. Morphophonemic change usually occurs at morpheme boundaries and it involves sounds that are associated with separate phonemes.
One very obvious example to morphophonemics would be the use of indefinite in English language. Indefinite article in English has two manifestations: a and an. If a word begins with a consonantal sound then indefinite article is manifested as ‘a’ (a mango or a cat), while it is manifested as ‘an’ (an apple or an idiot) if following word starts with a vowel sound.[2]
Note: The term ‘sound’ refers to the way a phone (consonant or vowel) is pronounced, not necessarily written, in English. Therefore, an hour is a correct phrase not *a hour and a university is the correct phrase not *an university.
3. Essential Vocabulary
To understand these kind of sound changes, i.e., morphophonemics, it’s important to give a quick look to following concepts: the smallest unit of sound (both underlying and surface forms - phoneme and phone, respectively) minimal unit of meaning (both underlying and surface forms – morpheme and morph, respectively), and how these phonemes and morphemes may show variation in their shape given different contexts – known allophony and allomorphy, respectively). Allomorphs are derived from a single morpheme known as underlying representation with the help of morphophonemic rules.
a. Phoneme: a phoneme is considered as a smallest unit of human speech sound that distinguishes meaning. Phonemes are usually written within slanted brackets //. There are 26 letters in English alphabet. But these 26 letters represent 44 phonemes. For example, phoneme /k/ occurs in words such as cut, kite, school and skin.
b. Phone: a phone is a surface manifestation/form of a phoneme given a phonological environment. Phones are usually written within square brackets []. In English, phoneme /p/ is manifested (pronounced) as [p] in words like spat and spoon but as [ph] in words like pin, pick and poll.
c. Morpheme: a morpheme is a minimal, i.e. indivisible, unit of meaning. Morphemes are of various types given their structure (free and bound), content (zero and null) and functions (derivational and inflexional).
d. Morph: a morph is a surface manifestation/form of morpheme given a phonological environment. For example, plural morpheme is realized as [s] (cats and bats), [z] (dogs and calls) and [əz] (judges and churches) given different phonological environment.
e. Allophone: an allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language.
f. Allomorph: an allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morph in its different phonological or morphological environments.
g. Underlying Representation: an underlying representation is the most basic form of a morpheme/word before any phonological, morphological or morphophonological rule has been applied to it. Underlying representation shows native speaker’s knowledge about the abstract underlying phonology of the language.
h. 
Surface Representation: A surface representation (actual occurrence) is the form of a word that is spoken and heard.
Surface Representation: A surface representation (actual occurrence) is the form of a word that is spoken and heard.i. Morphophonemic rules: A morphophonemic rule is written in form of a phonological rule but it is restricted to a particular morphological environment. Unlike phonological rules, morphophonemic rules are sensitive to their environment. Whenever morphological information is required to specify the environment for an phonological rule, the rule is morphophonemic.
j. Phonological conditioning: phonological conditioning refers to the phenomenon wherein phonological environment of a morpheme determines selection and shape of itsallomorph(s).
k. Morphological conditioning: morphological conditioning is a conditioning wherein morphological environment of a morpheme determines selection and shape its allomorph(s).[3]
4. Steps involved in Morphophonemic Analysis
Morphemes are stored in lexicon. They are strung together by morphological and syntactic rules. These morphemes are then converted to their surface forms by a sequence of ordered phonological rules. In doing morphophonemic analysis, our aim is to establish a transparent connection – as far as it is possible – between data and theory. The main purpose of morphophonemic analysis is to discover a set of underlying forms and the ordered rules which are consistent with the given data. Main steps involved in the process of morphophonemic analysis are as following:[4]
a. Phonemicization: It is easier to perform morphophonemic analysis with data that are already expressed as phonemes. Therefore, it is recommended first to reduce the data into phonemes. This step is also referred as pre-processing of data in the process morphophonemic analysis.
b. Morpheme division: The second step is to divide the words forms into their component morphemes. However, phonological alternations tend to obscure this division.
c. Finding the allomorphs: Keeping visible and possible phonological alternation in mind, it’s necessary to find the allomorph of each alternating morpheme. After allomorphs have been indentified, find the segment(s) which tend to alternate.
d. Active rules: After division of words into morphemes and identification of allomorphs, it is possible to state rules and their order of application.
e. Setting up underlying representations: Taking into account the logical possibilities, underlying representations are to be set up so that all the possible allomorphs of each morpheme can be derived from a single underlying representation using general phonological rules. However, choosing underlying representations often involves considering more than one hypothesis. The following steps are usually helpful in determining correct underlying form:-
1) Segments exhibiting X∼Y alternation are underlyingly /X/, which is converted to [Y] in certain contexts by one or more phonological rules.
2) Segments exhibiting X∼Y alternation are underlyingly /Y/, which is converted to [X] in certain contexts by one or more phonological rules.
3) Surface segments that do not alternate are assumed to be the same at the underlyinglevel.
4) For segments that alternate, consistently use the underlying segment. So, if there was a X∼Y alternation and you determined that underlyingly the segment was /X/, then consistently write /X/ as the underlying representation in all lexcial items with the X∼Y alternation.
5) Each morpheme has only one underlying representation form.[5]
Note: An underlying form does not always necessarily correspond to the pronunciation of some pronounced word.
1. Asimilasi
Dalam Bahasa Inggris, asimilasi disebabkan oleh pembubuhan afiks yang terdiri dari prefiks dan sufiks.
a. Asimilasi yang disebabkan oleh prefiks:
{ad-} + tempt /ˈtɛmpt/ “menggoda‟ → attempt /əˈtɛmpt/ “mencoba‟
{in-} + legal /liɡəl/ “sah‟ → illegal /ɪliɡəl/ “tidak sah‟
{en-} + bed / bɛd/ “dasar‟→ embed /ɪmbɛd/ “menanamkan‟
b. Asimilasi yang disebabkan oleh sufiks:
add /ˈæd/ “menambahkan‟ + {-s} → adds /ˈædz/ “menambahkan‟
mattress /ˈmætrəs/ “kasur‟ + {-es} →mattresses /ˈmætrəsɪz/“kasur‟ (jamak)
mature /məˈʧʊr/ “dewasa‟ + {-ity}→ maturity /məˈtjʊrɪti/ “kematangan‟
close /ˈkloʊs/ “menutup‟ + {-ure} → closure /ˈkloʊʒər/ “penutupan‟
2. Disimilasi
Disimilasi dalam Bahasa Inggris terjadi akibat pelekatan prefiks dan sufiks pada morfem dasar dan juga perbedaan variasi dialek.
a. Disimilasi yang disebabkan oleh prefiks:
{in-} + noble /ˈnoʊbəl/ “mulia‟ → ignoble /ˌɪɡˈnoʊbəl/ “hina‟
{in-} + flat /ˈflæt/ “kempes‟ → inflate /ɪnˈfleɪt/ “memompa‟
b. Disimilasi yang disebabkan oleh sufiks:
bomb /ˈbɑm/ “bom‟ + {-ing} → bombing /ˈbɑmɪŋ/ “mengebom‟
damn /ˈdæm/ “kutuk‟ + {-ing} → damning /ˈdæmɪŋ/ “mengutuk‟
c. Disimilasi dalam perbandingan dialek:
Morfem dasar | Pelafalan baku | Dialek rhotic | Arti |
governor | /ˈɡʌvərnər/ | /ˈɡʌvənər/ | “gubernur‟ |
surpass | /sərˈpæs/ | /səˈpæs/ | “melampaui‟ |
Keterangan: Rhotic = Dialek yang menekankan penggunaan bunyi /r/ di akhir kata namun tidak di tengah kata (Skotlandia, Irlandia, dll).
Morfem dasar | Pelafalan baku | Dialek non rhotic | Arti |
better | /ˈbɛtər/ | /ˈbɛtə/ | “lebih baik‟ |
car | /ˈkɑr/ | /ˈkɑː/ | “mobil‟ |
Keterangan: Non-rhotic = dialek yang tidak menekankan bunyi /r/ di akhir kata (British, dll).
3. Penyisipan (insertion)
Dalam bahasa Inggris, penyisipan terjadi karena proses itu sendiri, maupun dengan proses lain seperti proses afiksasi, pemajemukan dan perbandingan dialek.
a. Penyisipan fonem vokal (epenthesis):
Morfem dasar | Arti | Epenthesis | Arti |
back / ˈbæk/ | “kembali‟ | aback /ə ˈbæk/ | “kembali‟ |
live /ˈlaɪv/ | “hidup‟ | alive /əˈlaɪv/ | “masih hidup‟ |
Penyisipan fonem vokal (epenthesis) yang disebabkan oleh prefiks:
Proses yang disebabkan oleh afiksasi bisa disertai penghapusan fonem yang ada.
{ad-} + tempt /ˈtɛmpt/ “menggoda‟ → attempt /əˈtɛmpt/ “mencoba‟
{en-} + bed / bɛd/ “dasar‟ → embed /ɪmbɛd/ “menanamkan‟
Penyisipan fonem vokal (epenthesis) yang disebabkan oleh sufiks:
close /ˈkloʊs/ “menutup‟ + {-ure} → closure /ˈkloʊʒər/ “penutupan‟
cello /ˈʧɛloʊ/ “selo‟ (alat musik) + {-ist}→ cellist /ˈʧɛləst/ “pemain selo‟
b. Penyisipan fonem konsonan (excrescence)
KB Bentuk tunggal | Arti | KB Bentuk jamak |
aircraft /ˈɛrˌkræft/ | “kendaraan udara‟ | aircrafts /ˈɛrˌkræfts/ |
bed /ˈbɛdz/ | “tempat tidur‟ | beds /ˈbɛdz/ |
Keterangan: KB = Kata benda; KK = Kata kerja
Penyisipan fonem konsonan (excrescence) yang disebabkan oleh prefiks:
{en-} + balm /bɑm/ “balsem‟→ embalm /ɛmˈbɑm/ “merempahi‟ (mayat)
{in-} + mature /məˈʧʊr/ “dewasa‟ → immature /ˌɪməˈtjʊr/ “belum dewasa‟
{ad-} + tempt /ˈtɛmpt/ “menggoda‟→ attempt /əˈtɛmpt/ “mencoba‟
Penyisipan fonem konsonan (excrescence), pada pemajemukan:
flex /ˈflɛks/ “lentur‟ + able /ˈeɪbəl/ “bisa‟ → flexible /ˈflɛksəbəl/ “fleksibel‟
Penyisipan fonem konsonan (excrescence, sufiks):
add /ˈæd/ “menambahkan‟ + {-s} → adds /ˈædz/ “menambahkan‟
c. Penyisipan gugus fonem (cluster)
Morfem | Arti | Bentuk repetisi |
appear /əˈpɪr/ | “muncul‟ | reappear /ˌriəˈpɪr/ |
create /kriˈeɪt/ | “buat‟ | recreate /ˈrikriˌeɪt/ |
Bentuk sekarang | Arti | Bentuk lampau |
accept /ækˈsɛpt/ | “menerima‟ | accepted /ækˈsɛptɪd/ |
land /ˈlænd/ | “mendarat‟ | landed /ˈlændəd/ |
4. Penghapusan (deletion)
Dalam Bahasa Inggris, penghapusan terjadi pada pelafalan kata baku yang melibatkan huruf bisu, penyederhanaan atau kontraksi, afiksasi dan perbandingan dialek.
a. Penghapusan bunyi awal morfem (aphaeresis) pada pelafalan secara baku:
Morfem | Pelafalan | Arti |
honor | /ˈɑnər/ | “kehormatan‟ |
pseudo | /ˈsudoʊ/ | “semu‟ |
pharmacy | ˈfɑrməsi/ | “farmasi‟ |
b. Penghapusan bunyi tengah morfem (syncope) yang disebabkan oleh prefiks:
{ad-} + sure /ˈʃʊr/ “yakin‟ → assure /əˈʃʊr/ “menjamin‟
{in-} + legal /liɡəl/ “sah‟ → illegal /ɪliɡəl/ “tidak sah‟
{en-} + bed / bɛd/ “dasar‟ → embed /ɪmbɛd/ “menanamkan‟
c. Penghapusan bunyi tengah morfem (syncope) yang disebabkan oleh sufiks:
able /ˈeɪbəl/ “sanggup‟ + {-ity} → ability /əˈbɪləˌti/ “kemampuan‟
citrus /ˈsɪtrəs/ “jeruk‟ + {-ate} → citrate /sɪtreɪt/ “zat sitrat‟
d. Penghapusan bunyi tengah morfem (syncope) pada pelafalan secara baku:
Proses ini terjadi pada morfem dengan gugus /ɡh/ dan pada kata kerja lampau irregular (tak beraturan).
Morfem | Pelafalan | Arti |
bought | /ˈbɑt/ | “membeli‟ |
assured | /əˈʃʊrd/ | “terjamin‟ |
booked | /ˈbʊkt/ | “sudah dipesan‟ |
e. Penghapusan bunyi tengah morfem (syncope) yang disebabkan oleh kontraksi
Kata/frasa | Kontraksi | Arti |
cannot /ˈkænɑt/ | can’t /ˈkænt/ | “tidak bisa‟ |
I will /ˈaɪˈwɪl/ | I’ll /ˈaɪl/ | “saya akan‟ |
would not /wɪlˈnɑt/ | won’t /ˈwoʊnt/ | “tidak akan‟ |
f. Penghapusan bunyi akhir morfem (apocope) pada pelafalan huruf bisu
Morfem | Pelafalan | Arti |
awake | /əˈweɪk/ | “terjaga‟ |
buffet | /bəˈfeɪ/ | “prasmanan‟ |
corps | /ˈkɔr/ | “korps‟ |
g. Penghapusan bunyi akhir morfem (apocope) dalam perbandingan dialek
Morfem | American | British | Arti |
air | /ˈɛr/ | /ˈɛə/ | “udara‟ |
bore | /ˈbɔr/ | /ˈbɔː/ | “lubang‟ |
car | /ˈkɑr/ | /ˈkɑː/ | “mobil‟ |
5. Haplologi
Pada Bahasa Inggris, proses ini terjadi karena pemajemukan (compounding) dan proses afiksasi.
a. Haplologi yang disebabkan oleh pemajemukan morfem
flame /ˈfleɪm/ “api‟ + glare /ˈɡlɛr/ “kilau‟ → flare /ˈflɛr/ “suar‟
smoke /ˈsmoʊk/ “asap‟ + fog /ˈfɔɡ/ ‘kabut‟→ smog /ˈsmɑɡ/ “kabut asap‟
b. Haplologi yang disebabkan oleh afiksasi
able /ˈeɪbəl/ “sanggup‟ + {-ly}→ ably /ˈeɪbli/ “cakap‟
gentle /ˈʤɛntəl/ “lembut‟ + {-ly}→ gently /ˈʤɛntli/ “dengan lembut‟
idle /ˈaɪdəl/ “diam‟ + {-ly} → idly /ˈaɪdli/ “dengan malas‟
princess /ˈprɪnsɛs/ “putri‟ + {-‟s}→ princess’ /ˈprɪnsɛsɪz/ “milik putri‟
c. Haplologi yang disebabkan oleh sufiks:
muscle /ˈmʌsəl/ “otot‟ + {-ar} → muscular /ˈmʌskjələr/
6. Metatesis
Dalam Bahasa Inggris, metatesis dapat terjadi pada beberapa kondisi, seperti percakapan informal, kesalahan pengucapan maupun pelafalan secara cepat.
Morfem | Metatesis | Arti |
asterisk /ˈæstərɪsk/ | asterix /ˈæstərɪks/ | “tanda bintang‟ |
introduce /ˌɪntrəˈdus/ | interduce /ˌɪntərˈdus/ | “memperkenalkan‟ |
prescription /prəˈskrɪpʃən/ | perscription /pərˈskrɪpʃən/ | “resep‟ (medis) |
7. Harmonisasi Vokal
Dalam Bahasa Inggris proses ini tidak ditemukan.
8. Reduksi atau Pengurangan Vokal
Dalam Bahasa Inggris, proses ini terjadi pada morfem yang digabungkan dengan morfem bebas (dalam pemajemukan) atau afiks (afiksasi)
a. Reduksi yang disebabkan oleh pemajemukan:
Christ /ˈkraɪst/ “Kristus‟ + mæsse /ˈmæs/ “perayaan‟ (Inggris kuno) → Christmas /ˈkrɪsməs/ “Natal‟
b. Reduksi yang disebabkan oleh afiksasi:
proclaim /proʊˈkleɪm/ “menyatakan‟ + {-ation}→ proclamation /prɑkləˈmeɪʃən/ “proklamasi‟
geography /ʤiˈɑɡrəfi/ “geografi‟ + {-ic} → geographic /ˌʤiəˈɡræfɪk/ “geografis‟
geology /ʤiˈɑləʤi/ “geologi‟ + {-ic} → geologic /ˌʤiəˈlɑʤɪk/ “geologis‟
9. Aturan Nada
Dalam Bahasa Inggris proses ini tidak ditemukan karena proses ini disertai penyisipan fonem vokal baru sebelum verba. Aturan nada/intonasi dalam Bahasa Inggris dibahas dalam kajian morfologis yang lebih luas.
10. Aturan Urutan Morfem
Dalam Bahasa Inggris, proses ini ditemukan dalam urutan penggunaan morfem dasar dan sufiks yang menentukan apakah sebuah kata berada dalam penggunaan tertentu (progresif atau lampau).
Aturannya digambarkan sebagai berikut:
KK + {-sufiks} (progresif)
KK + {-sufiks} (lampau)
Keterangan: KK = Kata Kerja
Pada bentuk progresif, sufiks yang digunakan yaitu {-ing}, dan pada bentuk lampau menggunakan sufiks {-ed}.
Infinitif (V1) | Progresif | Lampau (V2 dan V3) | ||
1. | “beri‟ | grant | granting /ˈɡræntɪŋ/ | granted /ˈɡræntɪd/ |
2. | “lekat‟ | attach | attaching /əˈtæʧɪŋ/ | attached /əˈtæʧt/ |
3. | “minta‟ | Ask | asking /ˈæskɪŋ/ | asked /ˈæskt/ |
REFERENCES
Akmajian, A. dkk. 2001. Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication. London: The MIT Press.
Bauer, L. 2007. The Linguistics Student’s Handbook. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
Nida, E. 1949. Morphology: The Descriptive Analysis of Words. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Pankaj Dwivedi, Morphophonemics, Online dalam (https://www.academia.edu/34528431/Morphophonemics.pdf), diakses tanggal 25 November 2019, Pukul 2:30.
I Made Yudhi Gunawan, ” Proses Morfofonemik; Dalam Bahasa Inggris Dan Bahasa Bali (Suatu Analisis Kontrastif)” Jurnal Skripsi, Universitas Sam Ratu Langi Manado Tahun 2019.
[1]Pankaj Dwivedi, Morphophonemics, Online dalam (https://www.academia.edu/34528431/Morphophonemics.pdf), diakses tanggal 25 November 2019, Pukul 2:30, p. 1-2
[2] Ibid., p. 2-3.
[3] Ibid., p. 4-5.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Ibid., p. 5-6
[6] I Made Yudhi Gunawan, ” Proses Morfofonemik; Dalam Bahasa Inggris Dan Bahasa Bali (Suatu Analisis Kontrastif)” Jurnal Skripsi, Universitas Sam Ratu Langi Manado Tahun 2019. p. 6-12.
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